The history of the Jewish people begin with the patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob) and matriarchs (Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, Leah) - specifically Abraham and Sarah. The history of the Jewish people is divided into five different periods: Biblical Period, Second Temple Period, Talmudic Period, Medieval Period, and Modern Period.

Abraham and Sarah
Abraham
Abraham was born under the name Abram in the city of Ur of the Chaldees to Terah, an idol merchant. From his early childhood, he questioned the faith of his father and sought the truth. He came to believe that the entire
universe was the work of a single Creator, and he began to teach this belief to others.

In the morning when he saw the sun rise in the east, he thought, "This is a great power. It must be the king who created me," That whole day he  prayed to the sun. In the evening, upon seeing the sun set and the moon rise, he said, "Surely this one rules even that other power to which I prayed, for it no longer shines." All night he prayed to the moon. In the morning, upon seeing the darkness pass and the east light up, he said "Surely all these have a King and Ruler Who directs them."When G-d saw Abraham's longing for Him, He appeared to Abraham and spoke with him. (Zohar 1:86a)

Abram attempted to convince his father of the folly of idol worship.

Terah manufactured idols. Once he went on a trip and left Abraham to sell them in his place. When someone came to buy, Abraham would ask, "How old are you?" The customer would answer that he was fifty or sixty years old. Woe to this man!" Abraham would say. "He is sixty years old, yet he wants to bow down to a one-day old idol!" The man would go away in shame. A woman came in, carrying a bowl of flour. She said to Abraham, "Take this and offer it before the idols." He took a stick, broke all the idols, and placed the stick in the hand of the biggest one. When his father cam, he asked, "Who did this to them?" "Why should I hide it from you?" replied Abraham. "A woman came in carrying a bowl of flour, and said to me, 'Offer this before the idols.' So I offered it before them. This one said, 'I will eat first!' and that one said, 'I will eat first!' The biggest one took a stick and broke the rest." "Why are you fooling me!" said Terah. "Do idols have understanding?" Abraham replied, "Let your ears hear what your mouth is saying." ... (Bereishis Rabbah 38:8)

Eventually, the one true Creator that Abram had worshipped called to him, and made him an offer: if Abram would leave his home and his family, then G-d would make him a great nation and bless him. Abram accepted this offer, and the b'rit (covenant) between G-d and the Jewish people was established.

Abraham kept every detail of the Torah and taught it to his sons. (Bereishis Rabbah 95:3)

Ten Trials of Abraham

“Ten miracles were performed for our forefathers in Egypt, and another ten at the sea. Ten afflictions were wrought by G-d upon the Egyptians in Egypt, and another ten at the sea. With ten tests our forefathers tested G-d in the desert, as is stated (Numbers 14:22), ‘They tested Me these ten times, and did not hearken to My voice.’ ” (Pirkei Avot 5:4)^[1]

There are frequent references to the ten trials of Avraham throughout Jewish literature. Due to these trials, Avraham was given special status as the servant and friend of Hashem and the ancestor of the Children of Israel. However, what these ten trials are is not exactly clear. Many of these trials are elucidated in the Torah such as his call to leave Ur of Chaldees and his circumcision.^[2] Other trials are disputed among various commentators. What follows are the trials according to Rashi^[3], Rabbeinu Yonah^[3].

Rashi
1. Abraham hid underground for thirteen years from King Nimrod (Pirke d'Rabbi Eliezer)
2. Nimrod flung Avraham into a burning furnace (Genesis Rabbah 38:13)
3. Abraham was commanded to leave his family and homeland (Genesis 12:1-2)
4. Abraham was forced to escape a famine in Canaan (Genesis 12:10)
5. Sarah was kidnapped by Pharaoh's officials (Genesis 12:15)
6. Abraham was forced to go to war to rescue Lot (Genesis 14:12-16)
7. G-d told Abraham that his offspring would suffer under the rule of four monarchies (Genesis 15:14)
8. Abraham was commanded to circumcise himself and his son (Genesis 17:10-13)
9. Abraham was commanded to drive away Hagar and Ishmael (Genesis 21:9-14)
10. Abraham was told to bind Isaac on the altar (Genesis 22:1-2)

Rabbeinu Yonah
1. Nimrod flung Avraham into a burning furnace (Genesis Rabbah 38:13)
2. Abraham was commanded to leave his family and homeland (Genesis 12:1-2)
3. Abraham was forced to escape a famine in Canaan (Genesis 12:10)
4. Sarah was kidnapped by Pharaoh's officials (Genesis 12:15)
5. Abraham was forced to go to war to rescue Lot (Genesis 14:12-16)
6. Abraham was commanded to circumcise himself and his son (Genesis 17:10-13)
7. Sarah’s abduction by Avimelech (Genesis 20:2)
8. Abraham was commanded to drive away Hagar and Ishmael (Genesis 21:9-14)
9. Abraham was told to bind Isaac on the altar (Genesis 22:1-2)
10. Abraham’s purchase of a burial plot for Sarah (Genesis 23:3-4, 16-17)

Rambam
1. Abraham was commanded to leave his family and homeland (Genesis 12:1-2)
2. Abraham was forced to escape a famine in Canaan (Genesis 12:10)
3. Sarah was kidnapped by Pharaoh's officials (Genesis 12:15)
4. Abraham was forced to go to war to rescue Lot (Genesis 14:12-16)
5. Abraham taking Hagar as a concubine (Genesis 16:1-3)
6. Abraham was commanded to circumcise himself and his son (Genesis 17:10-13)
7. Sarah’s abduction by Avimelech (Genesis 20:2)
8. Abraham is told to drive away Hagar (Genesis 21:10)
9. Abraham’s distaste at driving away Ishmael (Genesis 21:11)
10. Abraham was told to bind Isaac on the altar (Genesis 22:1-2)

³Stone Edition Tanach, Appendix B, Chart 3: The Ten Trials of Avraham (ArtScroll: New York, 1998) p. 2029

Sarah
Sarah was also born to idolaters but accepted the yoke of Torah along with her marriage to Abraham. Sarah was a righteous person who is considered one of the seven prophetesses. (Megillah 14a) She is called one of the "women in the tent" (Horios 10b) because she conducted herself with modesty even in the privacy of her tent. The hymn (Proverbs 31) was about the matriarch Sarah (Shocher Tov 112:1)

The Holy One, Blessed is He, spoke to all [other] righteous women through and angel, but to Sarah [He spoke] through Divine communication. (Lekach Tov, Bereishis 23:1)

Isaac and Rebecca
Isaac
Isaac was born circumcised on Passover to Abraham and Sarah. From his early childhood, he was taught Torah by his father Abraham and Uncle Shem.

Where was Isaac? [Abraham] had sent him to Shem to study Torah, for Abraham said, "All that I possess is only because I engaged in Torah and mitzvot. Therefore, I do not want it ever to depart from my seed." (Bereishis Rabbah 56:11)

For Abraham's tenth test of faith, G-d Abraham to sacrifice Isaac as a burnt offering. This test is known in Jewish tradition as the Akeidah (the Binding, a reference to the fact that Isaac was bound on the altar). This test also demonstrated Isaac's own faith for he knew that he was to be sacrificed yet he did not resist his father. At the last moment, G-d sent an angel to stop the sacrifice. This story is used to show that G-d fiercely dislikes human sacrifice and forbids it for all peoples.

After the Patriarch Abraham died, the Holy One, Blessed is He, appeared to Isaac and blessed him. (Bereishis Rabbah 61:6)

Rebecca
She is called one of the "women in the tent" (Horios 10b) because she conducted herself with modesty even in the privacy of her tent. Rebecca was born into a family of idolaters but was in the image of Sarah. (Zohar 1:133a) When Rebecca was fourteen years of age she married Isaac and accepted the yoke of Torah. Rebecca knew that Jacob must be the one to carry forth the teaching of Torah and become the father of the nation of Israel. She therefore instructed Jacob how to trick his father into giving him Esau's blessing and birthright.

Each one agitated to kill the other. When she stood by synagogues and study halls, Jacob would struggle to emerge, and when she passed by temples of idolatry, Esau struggled to emerge. ... (Bereishis Rabbah 63:6)

Jacob (Israel) and Rachel and Leah
Jacob
Jacob was born circumcised to Isaac and Rebecca. From his early childhood, he was taught Torah by his father, his grandfather Abraham, and his uncles Shem and Eber.

No one ever toiled in Torah like the Patriarch Jacob. He would go from Shem's house of study to Eber's, and from Eber's house of study to Abraham's. (Tanchuma, ed. Buber, Vayishlach 9) Isaac taught Jacob Torah and gave him rebuke in his house of study. (Shemos Rabbah 1:1)

Jacob and his brother Esau struggled within Rebecca's womb. Esau had little regard for the spiritual heritage of his forefathers, and sold his birthright  to Jacob for a bowl of stew. After Isaac was tricked by Rebecca into giving Jacob a blessing meant for Esau, Esau became very angry, so Jacob fled to live with his uncle. While living with his uncle, Jacob was deceived into marrying Rachel's older sister, Leah, but later married Rachel and Rachel's and Leah's maidservants, Bilhah and Zilphah. Jacob fathered 12 sons (the twelve tribes of Israel) and one daughter.

After many years living with and working for his uncle/father-in-law, Jacob returned to his homeland and sought reconciliation with his brother Esau. He prayed to G-d and gave his brother gifts. The night before he went to meet his brother he wrestled with a man until the break of day. As the dawn broke, Jacob demanded a blessing from the man, and the man revealed himself to be an angel. He blessed Jacob and gave him the name "Israel" (Yisrael), meaning "the one who wrestled with G-d" or "the Champion of G-d." The Jewish people are generally referred to as the Children of Israel, signifying our descent from Jacob. 

Rachel
She is called one of the "women in the tent" (Horios 10b) because she conducted herself with modesty even in the privacy of her tent. Rachel was a righteous person who is considered one of the seven prophetesses. (Megillah 14a) Rachel wept for the children of Israel of they were sent into exile.

... said [Jacob], "for I buried her [on the road] by Divine command. In the future my children will go into exile. When they pass Rachel's tomb, they will embrace it. She will stand and pray for mercy on their behalf, and the Holy One, Blessed is He, will accept her prayer." (Pesikta Rabbasi 3:69)

Leah
She is called one of the "women in the tent" (Horios 10b) because she conducted herself with modesty even in the privacy of her tent. Leah is the twin sister of Rachel who married Jacob first through trickery. Leah also bore Jacob's first child. Leah saw David and Solomon through Divine Inspiration. (Zohar Chadash, Ruth 82a). Her primary goal was to produce tribal ancestors through Jacob. When she died she earned the right to be buried along side Jacob.

All her life [until her marriage] Leah stood at the crossroads and wept because of Jacob, whom she had heard was righteous, [whereas] Rachel never went out on the road. Therefore Leah merited to be buried with Jacob, while Rachel's tomb stands at the crossroads. (Zohar 1:223a).

^[1]"Ethics of the Fathers." chabad.org. Chabad, n.d.
^[2]Rosenfeld, Dovid. Abraham's Simplicity. Torah.Com, 2010.
^[3]Scherman, Nosson. Stone Edition Tanach. ArtScroll: New York, 1998.