G-d
G-d has many names such as El, El Shaddai, Adonai, Elohim, Almighty, L-rd, Hashem, King of the Universe. No matter what name we use, G-d is One and Indivisible. G-d has no human form and the use of terms such as "the hand of G-d" is a metaphor since the human mind cannot comprehend G-d on such a profound metaphysical level. There have been different views of G-d throughout the ages by various Jews:

The Tanach view has nine basic beliefs regarding G-d: monotheism (only One G-d); G-d has a name; nobody knows what G-d look like; G-d acts in this world; G-d has made a special relationship with Klal Yisrael, Klal Yisrael has a special Covenant with G-d; G-d requires ethical behavior of humans; G-d is a personal G-d; and, the suffering of the righteous is not understandable.

The Rabbinic view of G-d is similar to the Biblical view and includes: G-d's existence; monotheism; angels act as G-d's messengers; G-d judges this world; G-d and Klal Yisrael have a special bond; G-d is a personal G-d; the suffering of the righteous cannot be explained; and, there is an afterlife and a physical resurrection.

Philo Judaeus' view of G-d includes: monotheism; G-d cannot be described; G-d cannot be named; G-d's existence can be proven; G-d does not have a physical body but He does control this world; G-d operates in this world through "logos"; this "logos" is not a person; G-d can be approached; G-d has a special relationship with Klal Yisrael; and, evil does not come from G-d but from the world of matter.

Maimonides' view of G-d includes: G-d exists and has no physical body; the existence of G-d can be proven; the human mind cannot comprehend the totality of G-d so man uses euphemisms to describe G-d (i.e. the hand of G-d); G-d created the world out of nothingness; angels are the messenger of G-d; evil results from human actions and an imperfect world; man has free will; and, man's goal in life is spiritual and intellectual perfection.

The Kabbalah's view of G-d includes: G-d exists but is unknowable; the ten sefirot is how G-d manifests Himself in this world; the human body is a microcosm of the universe; G-d is Self-limiting; the world is imperfect; and, man is partners with G-d to help repair the world.

Baruch Spinoza's view of G-d includes: G-d and the universe are synonymous; G-d is not a personal G-d; G-d is beyond good and evil and is relative to human experience; man has no free will; and, the human mind remains forever (man is immortal).

Martin Buber's view of G-d includes: G-d cannot be defined and G-d's existence cannot be proven; man enters into a relationship with G-d when man enters into a genuine dialogue with others in man's daily activities; laws are given by G-d to individuals (there was no on-time revelation at Mount Sinai); and, evil comes about either through G-d withdrawing from man or man's own lack of decision or direction.

Milton Steinberg's Theistic view of G-d includes: monotheism; G-d is a personal, spiritual being; G-d is all-powerful (some theists - including Steinberg - believe that G-d is all-good but not all-powerful), all-good, and all-knowing; G-d is supernatural and transnatural; G-d knows man and hears and answers prayers; G-d is the source of good and evil although some theists - including Steinberg - limit G-d’s power by claiming that evil is part of the universe but does not come from G-d); human shortcomings limit our knowledge of G-d; the existence of G-d cannot be logically proven and must be taken on faith; G-d has a relationship with mankind; and, man works with G-d to repair the world.

Mordecai Kaplan's view of G-d includes: naturalistic G-d concept (the world can be explained by scientifically verifiable ideas); salvation for man is self-realization; G-d is manifested in the moral responsibility of man; G-d is a power not a being; miracles are part of natural law and not a suspension of this law by G-d; man does not pray to G-d - prayer is the first step to self-realization; and, evil is the part of life that does not allow self-realization.

Erich Fromm's view of G-d includes: G-d represents the ultimate goal for humanity; G-d symbolizes man's mind; and, G-d stands for man's inner experience and cannot be explained.

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Nature of G-d
G-d Exists
The Torah begins by stating "In the beginning, G-d created..." It does not tell who G-d is or how He was created. The fact of G-d's existence is accepted almost without question. In general, Judaism views the existence of G-d as a necessary prerequisite for the existence of the universe. The existence of the universe is sufficient proof of the existence of G-d.

G-d is One
One of the primary expressions of Jewish faith, recited twice daily in prayer, is the Shema, which begins שמע  ישראל  יהוה  אלהינו  יהוה  אחד (Hear, O Israel: The L-rd is our G-d, The L-rd is one.) This single statement contains three central Jewish beliefs:
There is only one G-d.
G-d is a unity. He cannot be divided into parts or described by attributes.
G-d is the only being to whom we should offer praise. G-d is the Creator of Everything

Everything in the universe was created by G-d and only by G-d. As Isaiah said, "I am the L-rd, and there is none else. I form the light and create darkness, I make peace and create evil. I am the L-rd, that does all these things." (Isaiah 45:6-7).

G-d is Incorporeal
Although many places in the Tanach and Talmud speak of various parts of G-d's body or speaks of G-d in anthropomorphic terms, Judaism firmly maintains that G-d has no body. Any reference to G-d's body is simply a means of making G-d's actions more comprehensible to beings living in a material world. We are forbidden to represent G-d in a physical form. That is considered idolatry. The sin of the Golden Calf incident was not that the people chose another deity, but that they tried to represent G-d in a physical form.

G-d is Neither Male nor Female
G-d has no body, no genitalia, therefore the very idea that G-d is male or female is completely incorrect. We refer to G-d using masculine terms simply for convenience's sake, because Hebrew has no neutral gender; G-d is no more male than a book. There are times when we refer to G-d using feminine terms. The Shechinah (a feminine word), the manifestation of G-d's presence that fills the universe, is conceived of in feminine terms.

G-d is Omnipresent
G-d is in all places at all times. He fills the universe and exceeds its scope. Closely tied in with this idea is the fact that G-d is universal. He is not just the G-d of the Jews; He is the G-d of all nations.

G-d is Omnipotent
G-d can do anything. The belief in G-d's omnipotence has been tested during the many persecutions of Jews, but Jews have always maintained that G-d has a reason for allowing these things, even if we cannot see the reason.

G-d is Omniscient
G-d knows all things, past, present and future.

G-d is Eternal
G-d has no beginning and no end. He will always be there to fulfill his promises. When Moses asked for G-d's name, He replied, "I am that I am," but the Hebrew word used, ehyeh, can be present or future tense, meaning "I am what I will be" or "I will be what I will be." The ambiguity of the phrase is often interpreted as a reference to G-d's eternal nature.

G-d is Both Just and Merciful
Judaism has always maintained that G-d's justice is tempered by mercy, the two qualities perfectly balanced.

G-d is Holy and Perfect
One of the most common names applied to G-d in the post-Biblical period is "Ha-Kadosh, Barukh Hu," The Holy One, Blessed be He.

G-d is our Father and our King
Judaism maintains that we are all G-d's children. A well-known piece of Jewish liturgy repeatedly describes G-d as "Avinu Malkeinu," our Father, our King. It is said that one of G-d's greatest gifts to humanity is the knowledge that we are His children and created in G-d's image.

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Names of G-d
יהוה
Ineffable Name, Unutterable Name (Tetragrammaton) - Holy Name used only by the Kohen Gadol in the Holy of Holies. This name is never spelled out or pronounced except by the Kohen Gadol. The use of the terms Yahweh or Jehovah are misnomers. In scripture, this Name is used when discussing God's relation with human beings, and when emphasizing his qualities of loving-kindness and mercy.

אדון עולם
Adon Olam (Master of the World)

אדני
Adonai (My L-rd) This name is commonly used when studying Torah/Talmud or when in prayer.

אדני אמת
Adonai Emet  (Truth)

אבינו מלכנו
Avinu Melkeinu (Our Father, Our King)

אהיה אשר אהיה
Ehiyeh asher Ehiyeh (I Am That I Am)

אין סוף
Ein Sof (Infinite” or “Endless)

אל
El (G-d) used chiefly in poetry and prophetic discourse.

אלהי אברהם אלהי יצחק ואלהי יעקב
Elohei Avraham, Elohei Yitzchak v'Elohei Yakov (G-d of Abraham, G-d of Isaac, and G-d of Jacob)

אלהים
Elohim (The Lawmaker) (Misspelled intentionally--spelled with a k not h in siddur (prayer book)/Tanach). In scripture, this Name is used when emphasizing God's might, His creative power, and his attributes of justice and ruler ship.

עליון
Elyon (Supreme or Most High) this Name appears chiefly in poetic and later Biblical passages.

השם
Hashem (The Name) This name is commonly used in everyday speech as well as in scripture.

הקדוש ברוך הוא
HaKodesh, Baruch Hu (The Holy One, Praised be He)

קדוש ישראל
Kadosh Yisrael (Holy One of Israel)

מגן אברהם
Magen Avraham (Shield of Abraham)

מקום
Makom (The Place, The Omnipresent)

מלך המלכים
Melech HaMelachim (The King of Kings)

רבונו של עולם
Ribbono shel Olam (Master of the World)

רועה ישראל
Ro'eh Yisrael (Shepherd of Israel)

ידש
Shaddai (acronym - Guardian of the Doors of Israel) This Name is the one written on the mezuzah scroll.

צור ישראל
Tzur Yisrael  (The Rock of Israel)

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Writing G-d's Name

Judaism does not forbid the writing out of the Names of G-d per se. However, Judaism does forbid taking the Names of G-d in vain and erasing or defacing the Names of G-d. Observant Jews do not write out the Names of G-d in order to protect the Names from later being erased or defaced. The commandment not to erase or deface the name of God comes from Deuteronomy 12:3-4.

You shall break apart their altars; you shall smash their pillars; and their sacred trees shall you burn in the fire; their carved images shall you cut down; and you shall obliterate their names from that place. You shall not do this to Hashem, your G-d.

The rabbis taught that we are commanded not to erase or deface a Name of G-d. This ruling is applicable only to a permanent form of writing a Name of G-d. Observant Jews will be careful when writing out the Names of G-d on a non-permanent medium such as the computer since the Names may be printed out and erased or defaced. Any permanent writing of the Names of G-d that are old and/or unusable are to be buried in a Jewish cemetery inside a geniza (a box used to bury holy objects) according to Jewish Law.

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The Different Aspects of G-d
By Rachel-Esther bat-Avraham

"The Jewish religion...is a network of profound ideas and rich insights, which during its long history has generated the fundamental beliefs of all Western religion. It has contributed to the civilized world its crowning ideals and its most glorious convictions--among them the idea of one G-d.---Maurice Lamm

Hear, O Israel: Hashem is our G-d, Hashem is the One and Only. If Judaism has one dogma this is it. The Jews have given a gift to the world with this simple yet profound statement. The early Hebrews believed, as did the pagans of the early world, in multiple gods and the worship of these many pagan gods. The Jews discovered monotheism, realized that G-d is One and not multiple, and then went on to explain why this belief made the G-d of the Hebrews different from the pagan gods. (Blech, Rabbi B.  (1999). The complete idiot’s guide to Jewish history and culture. Alpha Books: New York.)  According to Cahill what was new about this belief is the Jewish perception of G-d as being “a real personality who has intervened in real history, changing its course and robbing it of predictability. ” (Cahill, T. (1998). The gifts of the Jews: How a tribe of desert nomads changed the way everyone thinks and feels.  Doubleday: New York) Even though there are references to angels or divine beings (Psalms 103:20) and the host of heaven (I Kings 22:19) this in no way detracts from G-d’s uniqueness. All of these references to angels, divine beings, and host of heaven are referring to G-d’s messengers who do the bidding of the One G-d. The G-d of the Jews, the G-d the Jews brought to the world, does not belong to a collective of gods nor is He a godhead or leader of such a collective. G-d also has no female counterpart or any “relatives”. The Rabbis also taught that G-d is one:

An earthly king...has dukes and viceroys, who share with him in the burden of rule, and also have a share in the honor with which he is honored, but G-d is not so; He has not duke or governor and no lieutenant. No other with Him does His work, but He does it alone. No other bears the burden with Him, but He bears it alone. Therefore He alone is to be praised.   ---Midrash on Psalms 149:1

In the Hebrew Scriptures G-d is often referred to as El or Elokim, El Shaddai, Adon, Tzur, Av, Melech to help people relate to the ways in which G-d touched their lives. This in no way means that there are multiple gods.

When I am judging created things, I am called "G-d," and, when I am waging war against the wicked, I am called “L-rd of Hosts.” When I suspend judgment for a man’s sins, I am called El Shaddai, and, when I am merciful towards my world, I am called "Adonai," for "Adonai" refers to the Attribute of Mercy, as it is said, “The L-rd, the L-rd, G-d, merciful and gracious."  ---Exodus Rabbah, Shemot III, 6

A major concern for the Rabbis is the claim of some that there are two different gods operating in the world—one in charge of good and one in charge of evil. Because of this concern they taught:

[Scripture] would not let the nations of the world have an excuse for saying that there are two powers but declares: “I am the L-rd your G-d. I am He who was in Egypt and I am He who was at the sea. I am He who was at Sinai. I am He who was in the past and I amHe who will be in the future.  ---Mekilta, Bachodesh IV, vol 2, p 231

Nobody knows what G-d looks like. In fact G-d instructed the Jews not to represent Him by a sculptured image—not to make idols—as did the pagan peoples of the time. (Exodus 20:4-5) Even when Moses and a few elders of Israel “saw” G-d the passage does not say exactly what they saw. However it is believed that this really referred to the platform on which they believed G-d “stood.” (Exodus 24:10) Even Moses who “knew” G-d “face to face” (Deuteronomy 34:10) was told that he only would “see My back; but My face must not be seen.” (Exodus 33:23) We can feel G-d’s presence but in no way can we see G-d’s likeness. Even though nobody has seen G-d and has no idea of what He looks like the Rabbis took G-d’s existence for granted. However, there is some rabbinic literature that attempts to “prove” the existence of a universal G-d. According to one Midrash:

An unbeliever came to see Rabbi Akiva and asked him: “Who created the world?” Rabbi Akiva said: “Who made the garment  which you are wearing?” The other replied: “Obviously a weaver!” “Prove it to me,” said Rabbi Akiva. “What proof can I show you? Don’t you know that a weaver makes clothes?” “And don’t you know,” Rabbi Akiva answered, “that G-d is the Creator of the universe?” When Rabbi Akiva’s students asked that he explain his reasoning better, he said: “Just as a house implies that a builder built it, so the world makes known G-d as the one who created it.” ---Sonsino, R. & Syme, D.B. (1986). Finding God: Ten Jewish responses. UAHC: Ohio

According to the Rabbis, what others call gods are simply idols. "Other gods." But are they gods? Has it not been said: "And have cast their gods into the fire; for they were no gods"? What then does Scripture mean when it says: "Other gods"? Merely those which others called gods.  --- Mekilta, Bachodesh VI, vol. 2. p. 239

Even though we cannot see G-d or describe G-d in human terms we can easily recognize His presence in the world through creation, humanity, and G-d’s influence on history. According to the Jewish monotheistic idea G-d alone created the world and established a predictable order to His creation. (Genesis 1; Psalms 104:19-20) G-d’s creation is also renewed on a continuous basis. (Psalms 135:7) The earth is the L-rd’s only (Psalms 24:1) and no individual can lay claim to possessing the earth. (Leviticus 25:23) Humanity is to only act as the keeper of the world. G-d’s might and concern for humanity has led Him to influence history (Exodus 20:2, Deuteronomy 26:8-9) and G-d controls the affairs of those who come into contact with the Jews. (Deuteronomy 7:1-2, II Kings 10:32, Isaiah 10:5-6 and 44:28) G-d also has two “personalities”—middat harachamim (mercy) and middat hadin (justice)—that are used in His interaction with the world. Through justice, G-d assures humanity that nothing happens by chance and that the wicked will receive just punishment. (Exodus 6:1, 7:14, and 10:2) Through mercy, G-d considers individual cases and tempers the harsh decrees. (Genesis 6:3, 8:20-22, 9:8-17, 19:24-25, 22:7-8 & 11-18, and 25:19-23, Exodus 3:2-4:27, and Isaiah 54:17; See Yom Kippur service) We cannot understand why the righteous suffer. (Genesis 18:25, Deuteronomy 8:2, Proverbs 10:28, Psalms 37:25 and 73:3, Jeremiah 12:1, Job 4:8 and 11:7, Ecclesiastes 9:3, Isaiah 55:9) In spite of this uncertainty the Jews were urged to return to G-d for strength and support. (Psalms 73:16-17) The Rabbis discussed how a person should respond to yissurin (suffering) that is part of the human condition. One of the main rabbinic assumptions is that suffering frequently comes because of sin.

Raba says: If a man sees that painful sufferings visit him, let him examine his conduct....If he examines and finds nothing, let him attribute it to the neglect of the study of the Torah....If he did attribute it, and still did not find, let him be sure that these are chastenings of love....  ---Berachot 5a

The Rabbis seem to have recognized that suffering may have a purpose, though it is beyond human understanding. As Rabbi Yannai states: "It is not in our power to [understand] the prosperity of the wicked, nor the yissurin of the righteous." ---Avot 4:19

For the Rabbis, G-d is Israel’s parent, protector, and savior. This relationship is mutual. Just as G-d loves Israel so does Israel love G-d. G-d has a special relationship with the people Israel who chose to accept the offer of His Covenant and for Israel to be bound by it forever. (Deuteronomy 7:6, 32:9-10) Even though G-d chose Israel and Israel chose G-d it was not due to any special merits of the Israelites. (Deuteronomy 7:7-8) Israel was chosen because of the faithfulness and loyalty of the patriarchs and matriarchs. (Deuteronomy 4:37) G-d promises to protect Israel and Israel swears to follow the conditions of the Covenant. (Deuteronomy 28:1) This chosenness however brings along with it great responsibilities. (Amos 3:2) A particular purpose of this chosenness is to be a light unto the nations (as already discussed under the first section of this paper).

The majority of what I have been talking about up until now is the transcendent or universal aspects of G-d. But, G-d is also a personal G-d. (Genesis 3:9, 4:6-7;9, 6:11-13, 7:1-5, 17:7-9;19, 18:23-33, 20:3-7, and 22:1-2, Exodus 12:12, II Samuel 7:3 & 14, and I kings 19:12) G-d is not only a faraway Supreme Power but He is also an approachable, caring Deity. (Exodus 20:5 & 34:14, Numbers 11:33, Psalms 103:13, 100:5 & 145:18, and Hosea 2:21) According to the Rabbis even though we cannot see or understand G-d that does not mean that He is distant and aloof. The Rabbis stressed that G-d is approachable.

A heathen once asked R. Joshua b. Korha: Why did G-d choose a thorn bush from which to speak to Moses?...[G-d spoke from the thorn bush] To teach you that no place is devoid of G-d’s presence, not even a thorn bush. ---Exodus Rabbah, Shemot II, 5

G-d is near to every individual who calls in sincerity.

A man enters a synagogue, and stands behind a pillar, and prays in a whisper, and G-d hears his prayer, and so it is with all His creatures. Can there be a nearer G-d than this? He is as near to His creatures as the ear to the mouth. ---Jerusalem Talmud, Berachot 9, no. 1, f. 13a, 1.17

For the Rabbis, the nearness of G-d is determinant upon the individual’s conduct. Individuals can bring G-d closer or keep G-d further away.

When a person is mean and does things which are not correct, his actions remove him from the Shechinah, as it is said: "Your sins have separated between you and your G-d." But when a person does good deeds and pursues Torah studies, his actions bring him closer to the Shechinah. ---Seder Eliahu Rabba

By picturing G-d as an immanent G-d who takes personal interest in the affairs of humankind, they humanized G-d and made the Holy One approachable by any individual.

G-d is both immanent and transcendent and both personal and universal. G-d is One and indivisible with a special bond and everlasting Covenant with Israel. He acts within and also judges the world. G-d also has the special attributes of justice and mercy. G-d is indescribable within the limits of human knowledge and language but He is very close and powerful.

© Rachel-Esther bat-Avraham 2003-2009

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Biblical Covenants
A biblical covenant, “brit/bris” (ברית), is an agreement made between Hashem and humans. Hashem makes certain promises while requiring certain behaviors from humans in return.

There are five Biblical covenants in the Tanach (Hebrew Scriptures).

1. Noachide Covenant (Genesis 9:8-17) - The eternal covenant with Noach and his descendents that Hashem would never again destroy the earth with a flood. The sign of this covenant is the rainbow.

PROMISE: Hashem spoke to Noach and his sons telling them that He would establish a covenant with them and their descendants. This covenant would also extend to every living creature upon the earth. Hashem promises to never destroy the earth with flood waters again. Hashem placed a rainbow in the clouds as a sign of this covenant between Himself and mankind. When rain falls and the rainbow appears, Hashem said that He will remember this covenant and not cause another flood to destroy the earth.

REQUIREMENTS: Hashem gave mankind seven mitzvot as part of this covenant between Himself and mankind.
1. Prohibition of Idolatry
2. Prohibition of Blasphemy
3. Prohibition of Theft
4. Prohibition of Murder
5. Prohibition of Sexual Misconduct
6. Prohibition of Eating Live Meat
7. Prohibition of Failure to Establish Courts of Law

2. Avrahamic Covenant (Genesis 15:7-21; 17:10) - The eternal covenant with Avraham and his descendents regarding the Land of Israel and his descendents perpetual entitlement to that land. The sign of this covenant is the circumcision.

PROMISE: Hashem brought Avram out of Ur into the land he was to inherit. Three heifers, three goats, three rams, a turtle dove, and a young bird were sacrificed in what has come to be known as the “covenant between the parts”. Hashem told Avram that while he would die an old age and be buried, his descendants will end up enslaved in a foreign land for 400 years. However, Hashem promises to bring these descendants back to the land promised to Avram which would encompass everything from the river of Egypt to the Euphrates.

REQUIREMENTS: The requirement was that of circumcision. As a perpetual requirement, in order for them to be part of this covenant, every male Jew must be circumcised on the eighth day.

3. Sinatic Covenant (Exodus 19-24) - The eternal covenant with the Children of Israel and their descendents regarding Hashem being their god forever and protecting them. The sign of this covenant is the Torah.

PROMISE: Hashem promises that if the Children of Israel obey Him and keep His covenant they will be a treasure out of all the peoples and belong to Hashem. The Children of Israel will be a kingdom of princes and a holy nation. Hashem declares that those who love Him and keep his mitzvot will be blessed with loving kindness but those who hate Him, disobey his mitzvot, and take His Name in vain will be cursed. If they honor their fathers and mothers, their days will be lengthened on the land that was promised to Avraham and his descendants. Whenever Hashem allows his Name to be mentioned at the altar, he will bless the people. If the widow or orphan is oppressed, Hashem will slay the perpetrators and their wives will become widows and their children orphans. If the Children of Israel obey Hashem and follow his mitzvot, Hashem will hate their enemies and oppress their adversaries. If Hashem alone is worshipped Hashem will bless the food and drink of the people, remove illness from their midst, and there shall be no bereaved or barren women in the land. Hashem will send fear and confusion before the Children of Israel to confound their enemies and cause them to retreat.

REQUIREMENTS: Hashem gave the Aseret HaDiberot to the Children of Israel.
1. I am the Lord, your God, Who took you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage.
2. You shall not have the gods of others in My presence. You shall not make for yourself a graven image or any likeness which is in the heavens above, which is on the earth below, or which is in the water beneath the earth. You shall neither prostrate yourself before them nor worship them.
3. You shall not take the name of the Lord, your God, in vain.
4. Remember the Sabbath day to sanctify it. Six days may you work and perform all your labor, but the seventh day is a Sabbath to the Lord, your God; you shall perform no labor, neither you, your son, your daughter, your manservant, your maidservant, your beast, nor your stranger who is in your cities.
5. Honor your father and your mother.
6. You shall not murder.
7. You shall not commit adultery.
8. You shall not steal.
9. You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.
10. You shall not covet your neighbor's house. You shall not covet your neighbor's wife, his manservant, his maidservant, his ox, his donkey, or whatever belongs to your neighbor.

Civil and criminal laws are given including laws regarding:
Altars
Slaves and servants
Murder, manslaughter, accidental death, and kidnapping
Striking or cursing of parents
Animal behavior
Theft
Sorcery
Rape
Bestiality
Idolatry
Oppression of the widow, orphan, or stranger
Money-lending
Attitude toward judges
Offerings
Courts
Shemitah year
Pilgrimage festivals
Covenants with, and living in the lands of, the Hivvites, Canaanites, and Hittites

4. Priestly Covenant (Numbers 25:12-13) - The eternal covenant with Phineas regarding the eternal priesthood to the Aaronic line. The sign of this is the priesthood that remained in the Aaronic line and the Aaronic priesthood will return to perform the duties in the Third Temple.

PROMISE: Aaron and his sons shall be the priests of Israel for perpetuity.

REQUIREMENTS: Aaron and his sons shall follow all the rules and regulations regarding the Mishkan and the Beit HaMikdash as well as all the mitzvot given to the Children of Israel.

5. Kingly Covenant (II Samuel 23:5) - The eternal covenant with David regarding the eternal kingship to the Davidic line. The sign of this is the kingship that remained in the Davidic line and will return with the last king - the Moshiach (Messiah).

PROMISE: Hashem has made an everlasting covenant with David that the throne of Israel will forever be in his family.

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13 Principles of Faith (Printable 13 Principles of Faith )
The Rambam wrote his thirteen foundations in his Commentary on the Mishnah in the tenth chapter of tractate Sanhedrin. The Thirteen Principles fall into three general categories: (a) the nature of belief in G-d; (b) the authenticity of the Torah, its validity and immutability; and (c) man's responsibility and ultimate reward.

1. I believe with perfect faith that G-d is the Creator and Ruler of all things. He alone has made, does make, and will make all things.

2. I believe with perfect faith that G-d is One. There is no unity that is in any way like His. He alone is our G-d He was, He is, and He will be.

3. I believe with perfect faith that G-d does not have a body. physical concepts do not apply to Him. There is nothing whatsoever that resembles Him at all.

4. I believe with perfect faith that G-d is first and last.

5. I believe with perfect faith that it is only proper to pray to G-d. One may not pray to anyone or anything else.

6. I believe with prefect faith that all the words of the prophets are true.

7. I believe with perfect faith that the prophecy of Moses is absolutely true. He was the chief of all prophets, both before and after Him.

8. I believe with perfect faith that the entire Torah that we now have is that which was given to Moses.

9. I believe with perfect faith that this Torah will not be changed, and that there will never be another given by G-d.

10. I believe with perfect faith that G-d knows all of man's deeds and thoughts. It is thus written (Psalm 33:15), "He has molded every heart together, He understands what each one does."

11. I believe with perfect faith that G-d rewards those who keep His commandments, and punishes those who transgress Him.

12. I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the Messiah. How long it takes, I will await His coming every day.

13. I believe with perfect faith that the dead will be brought back to life when G-d wills it to happen.

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Original Sin

The first theologian to teach that man is born into this world in a state of sin was Saint Augustine who based this belief on Genesis 3:17-19.¹

“Original sin may be taken to mean: (1) the sin that Adam committed; (2) a consequence of this first sin, the hereditary stain with which we are born on account of our origin or descent from Adam.”³

Much of Christianity today subscribe to the original sin belief. They maintain that the sin of Adam was transferred to all future generations. Some sects of Christianity believe that original sin even taints the unborn children.¹

One man – Adam – transmitted to the entirety of the human race not only physical death which is punishment for sin, but also spiritual death which is sin itself.3 Man is believed to be hopelessly lost in a state of sin. Man is held captive by sin since the fall of Adam in Gan Eden (Garden of Eden).  “As a result, he is powerless to follow the path of obedience and righteousness by his own free will.  [Christianity contends], because all are born with an innate and uncontrollable lust for sin, humanity can do nothing to merit its own salvation.  In essence, man is totally depraved and true free will is far beyond his grasp. … In Christian terms, man is not inclined toward sin but more accurately is a slave to sin.”⁴

The term “original sin” is unknown in the Tanach and is antithetical to the core principles of the Torah and the prophets. The Tanach states that humanity was created in the image of Hashem. We are not created in the physical image of Hashem, because Hashem is incorporeal and has no physical appearance. Maimonides points out that the Hebrew word for "image" in Genesis 1:27 is "tzelem (צלם)."

Tzelem refers to the nature or essence of a thing, as in Psalm 73:20,

The Hebrew word for physical form, Maimonides explains, is "to'ar (תאר)," as in Genesis 39:6:

Similarly, the Hebrew word used for "likeness" is "damut (דמות)," which is used to indicate a simile, not identity of form. Rashi explains that we are like Hashem in that we have the ability to understand and discern. Maimonides elaborates that by using our intellect, we are able to perceive things without the use of our physical senses, an ability that makes us like Hashem, who perceives without having physical senses.

Humanity was formed with two impulses: yetzer tov and yetzer hara. The yetzer tov is the moral conscience, the inner voice that reminds you of Hashem’s law when you consider doing something that is forbidden. According to some views, it does not enter a person until she/he becomes responsible for following the mitzvot (age 12 for girls; 13 for boys).

The yetzer hara is more difficult to define, because there are many different ideas about it. It is not a desire to do evil in the way we normally think of it in Western society: a desire to cause senseless harm. Rather, it is usually conceived as the selfish nature, the desire to satisfy personal needs (food, shelter, etc.) without regard for the moral consequences of fulfilling those desires. The yetzer hara is not a bad thing. It was created by Hashem, and all things created by Hashem are good. The yetzer hara is generally seen as something internal to a person, not as an external force acting on a person.

People have the ability to choose which impulse to follow: the yetzer tov or the yetzer hara. That is the heart of the Jewish understanding of free will. The Talmud notes that all people are descended from Adam, so no one can blame his own wickedness on his ancestry (there is no concept of "original sin" in Judaism). On the contrary, we all have the ability to make our own choices, and we will all be held responsible for the choices we make.

The Torah, over and over again, dismisses the notion that man has lost his divinely endowed capacity to use his free will to choose good over evil. This notion is not hidden or ambiguous, it is proclaimed in nearly every teaching that Moshe (Moses) directs to the Children of Israel. In one of his last sermons delivered to the Children of Israel, Moshe declares that it is man alone who can – and must – merit his own salvation.⁴

Moshe also admonishes the Children of Israel not to question their capacity to remain faithful to the mitzvot as set out in the Torah.

These passages show that man is not doomed by original sin but can – and must – maintain a relationship with Hashem by performing the mitzvot given in the Torah. The mitzvot and Torah are not “far away” and they are not impossible to keep. This means that original sin is a misnomer – we are all free to choose life by following the mitzvot.⁴

Even earlier in the Torah, there is a statement (shortly after the sin of Adam and Eve) that man can overcome his lust for sin.

The fact that the Torah places these assuring words immediately following the sin in Gan Eden (Garden of Eden) is profoundly troubling when it comes to the idea of original sin. “[In] just these two inspiring verses, the Torah dispels forever the church's teachings on original sin.”⁴

Christianity teaches that original sin must be removed through washing away the sins (baptism) and/or through forgiveness through blood (believing in the death and resurrection of Jesus). This notion is completely foreign to the Jewish scriptures. Hashem does clearly lay out His plan for His people in Deuteronomy 30:15-16:4

“Throughout the Hebrew Bible the Almighty unambiguously declares that the children of Israel are to draw near to Him with intense love and faithfully keep His commandments.  This is the desire of the Creator.”⁴

Abraham, the father of the Jewish nation, remained intensely loyal to Hashem's mitzvot. As a result, the Torah regards our first patriarch as the “paradigm of faithfulness.”⁴

Hashem did not give us desires that we cannot govern, or mitzvot that we could not keep. The Torah was not delivered to the angels. The Torah was given to the Children of Israel long after the transgression in Garden of Eden.⁴ 

“In Jewish terms, sin is not a person, it's an event, and that event happened yesterday.  In chapter after chapter, the prophets of Israel beseech those who lost their way to turn back to the Merciful One because today is a new day.”⁴

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Teshuva
Rabbi Eliezer said: "Repent one day before your death." His disciples asked him, "Does then one know on what day he will die?" "All the more reason he should repent today, lest he die tomorrow" (Shabbat 153a).¹

Teshuva (literally, “return”) is the means of atoning for sin in Judaism. According to Jewish practice, if one commits a sin, he can be forgiven for that sin if he performs teshuva. Teshuva is more than just saying “I’m sorry” and includes the following steps:
1. Recognizing and regretting the sin.
2. Renouncing the sin.
3. Resolving never to commit the sin again.
4. If the sin was committed against another person, one must ask for that person’s forgiveness and make restitution.
5. Ask for forgiveness from Hashem.

When the Mishkan (Tabernacle) and the Beit HaMikdash (Temple) stood, a Jew was required to bring various korbanot (sacrifices) for certain types of sins. The process can be found in Sefer Vayikra (Book of Leviticus). Although korbanot was required, the most essential part was teshuva when the person bringing the korbanot would confess his sins.²

With the destruction in 70 CE of the Beit HaMikdash, the Jewish practice of offering korbanot ended. There were intermittent periods when small groups of Jews would offer the traditional korbanot on the Har HaBayit (Temple Mount) but this practice also ceased. Jewish life no longer revolved around the Beit HaMikdash and this led Judaism into an era where more emphasis was placed on studying Torah, tefillah (prayer), and further development of Jewish practices which did not involve the Beit HaMikdash.²

“At present, when the Temple does not exist and there is no altar of atonement, there remains nothing else aside from Teshuva. Teshuva atones for all sins. Even a person who was wicked his whole life and repented in his final moments will not be reminded of any aspect of his wickedness as [Ezekiel 33:12] states ‘the wickedness of the evil one will not cause him to stumble on the day he repents his wickedness.’” Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Teshuva 1:3³

Prayer has now taken the place of the korbanot. The prayer services are designed to parallel the sacrificial practices at the Beit HaMikdash.

In a number of places in the Talmud, emphasis is placed on performing charitable deeds, tefillah, and studying Torah. All of these are considered greater than korbanot and can be used to achieve atonement.

According to Maimonides, a person who sins should abandon his sins and remove them from his thoughts. The person should also resolve in his heart to never commit the sins again – based upon Isaiah 55:7 (The wicked shall give up his way, and the man of iniquity his thoughts, and he shall return to the Lord, Who shall have mercy upon him, and to our God, for He will freely pardon.3). He must also regret the past as stated in Jeremiah 31:18 (For after my return I have completely changed my mind, and after I had been brought to know myself, I smote upon my thigh; I was ashamed, yea I stood confounded, for I bore the reproach of my youth.3). The person who sins must also reach the level where he knows that the “hidden” will testify concerning him that he will never return again to this sin (Hosea 14:4: Assyria shall not save us; we will not ride on horses, nor will we say any longer, our gods, to the work of our hands, for in You, by Whom the orphan is granted mercy.3). Upon verbally confessing and stating these matters which are resolved in his heart, the person has attained teshuva. (Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Teshuva 2:3)⁶

Yonah ben Avraham Gerondi, a thirteenth century rabbi from Catalonia stated:
"The repentant sinner should strive to do good with the same faculties with which he sinned.... With whatever part of the body he sinned, he should now engage in good deeds. If his feet had run to sin, let them now run to the performance of the good. If his mouth had spoken falsehood, let it now be opened in wisdom. Violent hands should now open in charity.... The trouble­maker should now become a peacemaker."¹

The goal of teshuva is clearly enunciated throughout the Tanach, Talmud, and rabbinic writings. The process of achieving the goal of teshuva is not described. We are to do teshuva but the process is not necessarily laid out in a clear path. Each person is unique and as such, each path to teshuva – within the written guidelines – is also a unique path. As Rabbi Joseph Soloveitchik stated, “the person after teshuva must be different from the person before teshuva.”⁷

“[Who has reached] complete Teshuva? A person who confronts the same situation in which he sinned when he has the potential to commit [the sin again], and, nevertheless, abstains and does not commit it because of his Teshuva alone and not because of fear or a lack of strength. … Even if he transgressed throughout his entire life and repented on the day of his death and died in repentance, all his sins are forgiven as [Ecclesiastes, 12:2 states:] "Before the sun, the light, the moon, or the stars are darkened and the clouds return after the rain..." - This refers to the day of death. Thus, we can infer that if one remembers his Creator and repents before he dies, he is forgiven.” (Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Teshuva 2:1)⁶

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Angels
Jewish teachings about angels are ancient, going back to the first five books of the Bible, the Torah. Cherubim with flaming swords guard the gates of Eden after Adam and Eve are banished (Genesis 3). An angel arrives to tell Abraham he and Sarah will have a child (Genesis 18) and then an angel stays Abraham's hand when he is about to sacrifice that child (Genesis 22). It is an angel who saves Hagar and Ishmael in the desert (Genesis 21), appears to Moses out of the burning bush (Exodus 3), and announces to Samson's mother to be that she is to have an exceptional child (Judges 13). This list is but a sampling of the angelology of the Bible.^[1]

Angels are beings residing in heaven who carry out G-d's will. Angels serve the purpose of G-d in specific circumstances such as wrestling with Jacob and are capable of doing only one job at a time (which is why there were three angels visiting Abraham). Angels do not have free will as humans do - even though G-d may choose to give angels limited free will (such as allowing haSatan to tempt Job). Angels are generally thought of as protectors - each of the 70 nations of the world - as well as Israel - have a "guardian angel". Four of the most mentioned angels are Michael, Gabriel, Uriel, and Raphael. Michael is the commander-in-chief of the angels and the guardian of Israel. Gabriel is the master of courage. Uriel is the angel of light. Raphael is the healing angel.

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Demons
Demons are said to have been created at the twilight of the sixth day of Creation. They are without free will and may only do the bidding of G-d. There are demons mentioned in the Bible. The se'irim are satyr-like demons to whom the Israelites had sacrificed (Leviticus 17:7). Azazel (Leviticus 16:10) is a goat-like demon of the wilderness to whom a goat is offered. He is probably the chief se'irim. Lilith (Isaiah 34:14) is also associated with the se'irim. The shedim are demons to whom the Israelites had sacrificed (Deuteronomy 32:17). "Rabbinical demonology has, like the Chaldean, three classes of, demons, though they are scarcely separable one from another. There were the "shedim," the "mazziḳim" (harmers), and the "ruḥin" or "ruḥotra'ot" (evil spirits). Besides these there were "lilin" (night spirits), "ṭelane" (shade, or evening, spirits), "ṭiharire" (midday spirits), and "ẓafrire" (morning spirits), as well as the "demons that bring famine" and "such as cause storm and earthquake" (Targ. Yer. to Deut. xxxii. 24 and Num. vi. 24; Targ. to Cant. iii. 8, iv. 6; Eccl. ii. 5; Ps. xci. 5, 6; compare Ps. lxx. and Is. xxxiv. 14). Occasionally they are called "mal'ake ḥabbalah" (angels of destruction) (Ber. 51a; Ket. 104a; Sanh. 106b)."^[1]

Truly, demons are not a large feature of Hebrew Scriptures, but they are present: satyrs, spirits, and lilits (Lev. 16: 10; I Sam. 16:14-16; Isa. 34:14). It is indeed remarkable how small a role they play, considering the prominent role of the demonic in surrounding cultures…. It is indeed not until the post-Biblical period that we see a fuller elaboration on the theme of spirit beings. This explosive interest in demonology found in the pseudepigraphia, rabbinic literature, and Hebrew and Aramaic amulets no doubt was in part stimulated by the pervasive preoccupation with demons in Zoroastrian and Greco-Roman religions.^[2]

[T]he Sages situate the origins of spirits among the initial works of creation. Avot 5.6 asserts that demons were created on the "twilight of the 6th day." Perhaps the answer can be found in a cognate rabbinic tradition that Adam and Eve committed their primeval sin at precisely that time, the twilight of the sixth day. This suggests that the unspoken rabbinic premise for the origins of demons is that they are not a direct creation of God; rather, they are a byproduct of human sin.^[2]

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Heaven
Shamayim (Heaven) "was explained as the combination of of sham and mayim (the place where there is water), or esh and mayim (fire and water), and from these two elements, the celestial region was made (Chag. 12a)." There are seven heavens discussed in Jewish texts. Vilon retires in the morning and comes forth in the evening, renewing the work of Creation daily. Rakia is the heaven to which the sun, moons, stars, and planets are afixed. Shecakim is where the millstones are located that grind manna for the righteous. Zebul is a place of habitation. Maon is where the band of angels sings at night but remains silent during the day to allow for the songs of Israel to reach upward to heaven. Machon contains: the treasuries of snow and hail; the loft of dews and "round drops"; the chamber of the whirlwind and storm; cavern of noxious smoke; and doors made of fire. Araboth contains: righteousness, charity, and judgment; the storehouses of life, of peace, of blessing; the souls of the righteous; the spirits and souls that are still to be created; and the dew that will be used by G-d to revive the dead.^[1]

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Afterlife
Traditional Judaism believes in Olam Habah (The World To Come). Death is the end of this physical life but it is also the beginning of a spiritual life. Judaism stresses this life which leaves little dogma about the afterlife and room for many beliefs. There are varied beliefs that range from the belief that the dead go to "heaven", they are reincarnated, or simply wait until the Moshiach arrives when they will be resurrected. The resurrection of the dead when the Moshiach arrives is a principle belief of Judaism. It is included in Maimonides' 13 Principles of Faith and in the second blessing of the Shemoneh Esrei prayer that is said three times daily. Only the most righteous go straight to Gan Eden ("heaven") while others are placed in Gehenna for up to twelve months to have their souls purified before ascending to Gan Eden. Every righteous person of all the nations will have a place in the afterlife. The place one will take in the afterlife is dependent upon the behavior of the individual in this life.

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Synagogue
In Hebrew the synagogue is knows as the beit k'nesset (house of assembly). The synagogue is also known as a beit tefillah (house of prayer) and a beit midrash (house of study). In Yiddish the synagogue is known by the term "shul". In traditionally built synagogues the front wall faces east toward Jerusalem. The Holy Ark (Aron Kodesh) containing the Torah scrolls is located on this eastern wall. In traditional synagogues the bimah is located in the middle of the sanctuary and the cantor/rabbi/leader faces the eastern wall like the congregation. There is a mechitza (screen or one-way mirror) that divides the sanctuary into separate male and female seating and the synagogue is never referred to as a "Temple". In modernist synagogues the bimah is placed in front of the Ark and is facing the congregation. In addition, men and women are seated together and the synagogues may contain the word "Temple" in their names. [Synagogue Service]

Although synagogues existed well before the destruction of the 2nd Temple in 70 CE, communal worship in the time while the Temple still stood centered around the korbanot ("sacrificial offerings") brought by the kohanim ("priests") in the Holy Temple. During the Babylonian captivity the Men of the Great Assembly began the process of formalizing and standardizing Jewish services and prayers that did not depend on the functioning of the Temple in Jerusalem. Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai, one of the leaders at the end of the Second Temple era, promulgated the idea of creating individual houses of worship in whatever locale Jews found themselves. This contributed to the saving of the Jewish people by maintaining a unique identity and a portable way of worship despite the destruction of the Temple, according to many historians. Synagogues in the sense of purpose-built spaces for worship, or rooms originally constructed for some other purpose but reserved for formal, communal prayer, existed long before the destruction of Solomon's Temple. The earliest archaeological evidence for the existence of very early synagogues comes from Egypt, where stone synagogue dedication inscriptions dating from the third century BCE prove that synagogues existed by that date. A synagogue dating from between 75 and 50 BCE has been uncovered at a Hasmonean-era winter palace near Jericho. More than a dozen Second Temple era synagogues have been identified by archaeologists.^[1]

Throughout Jewish history, synagogues have been constructed by all types of people. They have been constructed by wealthy patrons; by ethnically-bound groups of people; … and by any like-minded group of Jews. Eastern European Jewish communities were characterized by the presence of kloizen (literally, "gathering places") in which worshippers belonging to the same profession prayed together. ... One kloiz that still bears that name today is the Breslov synagogue in Uman, Ukraine, which accommodates thousands of worshipers at the annual Breslover Rosh Hashana kibbutz (prayer gathering). It is called the "New Kloiz" to distinguish it from the "Old Kloiz", which was built by Nathan of Breslov in 1834. The emancipation of Jews in European countries not only enabled Jews to enter fields of enterprise from which they were formerly barred, but gave them the right to build synagogues without needing special permissions, synagogue architecture blossomed. Large Jewish communities wished to show not only their wealth but also their newly acquired status as citizens by constructing magnificent synagogues. These were built across Europe and in the United States in all of the historicist or revival styles then in fashion. Thus there were Neoclassical, Neo-Byzantine, Romanesque Revival, Moorish Revival, Gothic Revival, and Greek Revival. There are Egyptian Revival synagogues and even one Mayan Revival synagogue. In the nineteenth and early twentieth century heyday of historicist architecture, however, most historicist synagogues, even the most magnificent ones, did not attempt a pure style, or even any particular style, and are best described as eclectic.^[1]

A synagogue may be decorated with artwork, but in the Rabbinic and Orthodox tradition, three-dimensional sculptures and depictions of the human body are not allowed, as these are considered akin to idolatry. Synagogue windows are sometimes curved at the top and squared at the bottom, recalling the popular depiction of the shape of the Tablets of Stone that held the Ten Commandments which Moses received from G-d at Mount Sinai. There is also a tradition to install twelve windows around the main sanctuary to recall the Twelve Tribes of Israel, underscoring the importance of unity and brotherhood as a result of the communal prayers.
Until the 19th century all synagogue interiors were laid out with both a spiritual and a communal focus. In an Ashkenazi synagogue, all seats faced the aron kodesh (Ark) in which the Torah scrolls were housed. In a Sephardi synagogue, seats were arranged around the perimeter of the sanctuary, but when the worshippers stood up to pray, everyone faced the Ark. The Torah was read on a reader's table located in the exact center of each sanctuary, echoing the manner in which the Children of Israel stood around Mount Sinai when they received the Torah. The leader of the prayer service, the Hazzan, stood at his own lectern or table, facing the Ark.^[1]

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Sacrifices and Offerings
Jews today do not offer any kind of animal sacrifice or offerings, nor have Jews offered sacrifices since the Second Century CE. There are some Orthodox rabbis in Israel who keep the techniques and laws of sacrifice alive by practicing the techniques of ritual sacrifice and teaching young Orthodox boys and men the techniques and laws. The practice of ritual sacrifice effectively stopped when the Roman army destroyed the Holy Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE. There was a brief resumption of sacrifices during the Jewish War of 132-135 CE. However, after this war was lost, sacrificial offerings ended. Since the Holy Temple has been destroyed Jews are unable to offer any sacrificial offerings. It is believed that when the Messiah comes the Holy Temple will be rebuilt and sacrifices will once again be permitted.

Animal sacrifices are only one way of obtaining forgiveness. There are also non-animal offerings and other means of obtaining forgiveness that do not involve any sacrifices. Many people refer to Leviticus 17:11 to show that blood is required for forgiveness. In fact, this passage is not about atonement but is about dietary laws. That passage states that the blood from the sacrifice is used for atonement but it does not say that this is the only means for obtaining atonement. Prayer has now taken the place of the ritual sacrifices. The prayer services are designed to parallel the sacrificial practices at the Holy Temple.

Hosea 14:3 "Take words with you and return to Hashem; say to Him, 'May you forgive all iniquity and accept good [intentions], and let our lips substitute for bulls'. "

I Kings 8:46-50 "When they sin against You - for there is no man who never sins - and you become angry with them, and You deliver them to an enemy, and their captors take them captive to the enemy's land, faraway or nearby, and they take it to heart in the land where they were taken captive and they repent and supplicate to You in the land of their captors, saying, 'We have sinned; we have been iniquitous; we have been wicked,' and they return to You with all their heart and with all their soul in the land of their enemies who had captured them, and prayed to You by way of their land that You gave to their forefathers, and [by way of] the city that You have chosen and [through] the Temple that I built for Your Name - may you hear their prayer and their supplication from Heaven, the foundation of Your abode, and carry out their judgment, and forgive Your people who sinned against You, and all their transgressions that they transgressed against You, and let them inspire mercy before their captors, so that they will treat them mercifully."

Qorbanot is usually translated as sacrifice or offering. However, qorbanot comes from a root word that means "to draw near". This indicates the primary purpose of offerings - that is, to draw us near to G-d. There are three basic concepts underlying qorbanot: the aspect of giving; the element of substitution; and, bringing a person closer to G-d. Certain qorbanot are brought purely for the purpose of communing with G-d. Others are used to cleanse a person of ritual impurity - which may have nothing to do with sin. Many qorbanot are brought for purposes of atonement. The atoning aspect of qorbanot is carefully circumscribed. Qorbanot can only be used for unintentional sins. The person making the offering must sincerely repent his or her actions before making the offering, and makes restitution to any person who was harmed by the violation.

There are different types of qorbanot - each with its own laws and rituals. An olah (burnt offering) is completely burnt on the outer altar; no part of it is eaten by anyone. Because the offering represents complete submission to G-d's will, the entire offering is given to G-d. It expresses a desire to commune with G-d, and expiates sins incidentally in the process. An olah could be made from cattle, sheep, goats, or even birds, depending on the person's means. The zerback sh'lamim (peace offering) expresses thanks or gratitude to G-d for His bounties and mercies. A representative portion of the offering is burnt on the altar, a portion is given to the Kohanim (priests), and the rest is eaten by the person bringing the offering and his family. This category of offerings includes thanksgiving-offerings, free will-offerings, and offerings made after fulfillment of a vow. This class of offerings has nothing to do with sin. In the Messianic Age there will be no more sin so this will be the only class of offering that will be brought to the Holy Temple. A chatat (sin offering) is meant as an atonement for - and a purge of - sin. It is an expression of the person's sorrow and desire to be reconciled with G-d. This type of offering can only be offered for unintentional sins committed through carelessness. Some of this type of offering are individual and some are communal. Communal offerings represent the interdependence of the community, and the fact that we are all responsible for each others' sins. A few special chatatot could not be eaten, but for the most part, the chatat was eaten by the Kohanim. The size of the offering varied according to the nature of the sin and the financial means of the sinner. Asham (guilt offering) is an offering to atone for sins of stealing things from the altar, for when you are not sure whether you have committed a sin or what sin you have committed, or for breach of trust. The asham offerings are eaten by the Kohanim. Minchah (meal offering) represented the devotion of the fruits of man's work to G-d and is something created through man's effort. There are also offerings of undiluted wine, referred to as nesekh. A representative piece of the offering was burnt on the fire of the altar, but the rest was eaten by the Kohanim. The parah adumah (red heifer offering) is a mysterious ritual described in Numbers 19. The purpose of this ritual is to purify people from the defilement caused by contact with the dead. When the Messiah comes, this ritual will be performed in order to purify everyone.

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